Body Language in Business Communication

Body Language in Business Communication Body language is a non verbal form of communication that is widely used by people in everyday environment. Alone, or in conjunction with the words, body language has a big influence on how we communicate to others. In business world it can cause both positive and negative results in communication. If used properly, body language can help create a friendly atmosphere in any conversation and can significantly enhance your verbal message. It can help win the interview, make a sale, give a successful presentation and profit from business negotiations. Therefore, today’s businesspeople more and more some time studying the different forms of the body language to achieve the maximum positive influence on people. They also do it, so they can better understand people around them as well. Body language is defined as everything what can be communicated without or in addition to words: facial expressions, physical movements (gestures), posture or silent actions. The study by UCLA (University of California in Los Angeles) showed, that words account for only 7% of the messages person conveys. The remaining 93% are non-verbal factors. As Lidia Ramse, business etiquette expert says: â€Å"In the business setting, people can see what you are not saying. If your body language doesn't match your words, you are wasting your time. † (The Sideroad: Body Language in Business by Lidia Ramse) In fact, psychologists divide body language in two categories: intentional and unintentional (subconscious). We cannot always verbally express what we feel, so our body language does it for us. At the same time, we can use our body language intentionally to express something without saying a word. It is good to understand that our body language can be also interpreted subconsciously as well. As people do not always pay close attention to what we do, certain actions can trigger a formulation of certain opinion about person. Mary-Lo use Angoujard, CEO and Founder of Rapporta Limited, gives a good example of the person, whose arms folded across the body, head down, stiff torso, hunched shoulders and crossed legs. She calls it â€Å"closed† body language that causes people think that this person is shy by nature, cold or ill or simply disagreeing strongly with something. (Raporta- Bringing Positive Energy to Business Communication) In addition to all above mentioned, nonverbal signals can suggest the attitude, understanding, empathy and ethics. That is why it is important to analyze and study your own body language and evaluate others’. Then you can learn how to use it in your own advantage and how to better understand your copartners to make your business communication process the most successful it can be. These are some tips on the most practical and common body language signals. Handshake Handshake is a form of gesture that is most commonly associated with greeting. Other common uses of it are starting the meeting, making an offer (deal) or completing an agreement. The main purpose of the handshake is to convey trust, balance and equality. In general handshake should be firm, full and supported by an eye contact. It can help convey your confidence and get a good start for further communication. Handshake can reveal your associate’s personality. The stronger the handshake the more aggressive or important the associate can be. Posture Standing tall and holding the head straight is not only a sign of a good posture. It can also show confidence, make the message come across easier and make it a subject of importance. Use of Personal Space Use of personal space is another important factor, but it is also culture oriented. Understanding of this term differs from one country to another. â€Å"For Western Europeans and Americans, a space of 14 to 16 inches is considered non-intrusive. But those from the U. K. might consider a distance of 24 inches to be more comfortable†, concludes Tatiana D. Helenius in her article about international business dealings (CNN. Money). As protocol and etiquette consultant Margaret DelVecchio said: â€Å"Awareness of the level of personal space required is crucial†¦. If not gauged properly, inappropriate proximity or distance can lead to misunderstandings and be interpreted as insult (CNN. Money). † It is also important to pay attention as to what stance your college has: is he sitting or standing? You should not take more space than other person does suggesting your bigger significance. In conclusion, it is important to mention that human body can produce over 700,000 unique movements. These movements have been divided into about 60 symbolic signals and around 60 gestures. Brenner Books: Body Language in Business). After careful examining of your own attitude you can choose and work on the most successful for the particular message body signals and correct unnecessary ones that caused you failure in the past. Nonverbal communication when coupled by good verbal skills together with knowledge of the mater ial and ethical behavior will have huge impact on others and bring successful results to any business. Works Cited Angoujard, Mary-Louise. â€Å"Is Your Body Talking Good Business? Body Language in Business – Sort it out and Communicate with Greater Impact. Rapporta – Bringing Positive Energy to Business Communication. Copyright 2006 Rapporta Ltd. Retrieved on 24 July, 2007 from: < http://rapporta. com/press07. htm> â€Å"Body Language Rules Biz Travel†. CNN. com/World. 8 July, 2003. Retrieved on 23 July, 2007 from: < http://edition. cnn. com/2003/WORLD/europe/07/08/biz. trav. body. language/index. html> Brenner, C. Robert. â€Å"Body Language in Business: How to Sell using Your Body! † BrennerBooks. com. Copyright 2001-2004, Brenner Information Group. 9 December 2004. Retrieved on 22 July, 2007 from: < http://www. brennerbooks. com/bodylang. tml> Helenius, D. Tatiana. â€Å"Body Language Savvy. † CNN Money. 2007 Cable News Network LP, LLLP. A Tim e Warner Company. 3 May, 2000. Retrieved on 22 July, 2007 from: < http://money. cnn. com/2000/05/03/career/q_body_language/> Morgan, Nick. â€Å"The Truth behind the Smile and Other Myths – When Body Language Lies. † HBS Working Knowledge. Vol. 5, No. 8, August 2002. Retrieved on 23 July, 2007 from: < http://hbswk. hbs. edu/archive/3123. html> Ramsey, Lidia. â€Å"Body Language in Business. † Sideboard. com. Blue Boulder Internet Publishing 2007. Retrieved on 23 July, 2007 from:

Low Interest Rate Long Term Effect

Low Interest Rates Long Term Effect â€Å"The prolonged low-interest rate environment is transforming the banking industry from savings and loans to service and loans,† said Dan Geller, executive vice president of research firm Market Rates Insight in San Anselmo, Calif. (Fitzpatrick) Consumers may think that the continued low interest rates are a profound thing, but banks on the other hand think much differently. Consumers are refinancing their houses at rates as low as 2. 875%, while big banks like Hudson City Bancorp Inc. , a mortgage lender, are being forced to sell themselves to M&T Bank Corp.These super low interest rates are complicating the industry’s journey to a recovery from the financial crisis. In the article† Low Rates Pummel Banks†, from the Wall Street Journal, Dan Fitzpatrick further explains the negative effect of long term low interest rates. Fitzpatrick describes it as â€Å"Borrowers Benefit, but Industry Lending Profits Hit Lowest Leve l in Three Years†. (Fitzpatrick) Usually, we would believe it to be true that lower interest rates are a good thing, because they make it cheaper to borrow. Like so, there are those in support of the lower rates for example, the Fed and the consumers.For the past four years, since the 2008 financial crisis, the Federal Reserve Board had been trying to bounce back the US economy. The short term interest rates are extremely low and by purchasing more bonds they are reducing long-term rates. In all this has lowered the Ten-year U. S Treasury yields to 1. 43%, the lowest since World War II. (Fitzpatrick) The Feds see this as a positive because they believe the low rates increase the economic growth along with employment. They support their belief by stating that the low rates make it easier and cheaper for companies and individuals to borrow money.These low rates developed, in part due to the Fed, have sprung a rush in the mortgage refinancing industry. The growth in mortgage refi nancing has assisted fee revenue at two major companies, J. P. Morgan Chase & Co. and Wells Fargo & Co. , which control nearly half of the mortgage market. Wells Fargo decided to keep nearly $10 billion of residential mortgages, which they would normally sell to investors just in search of more yield. Fitzpatrick speaks of a woman in N. Y. , Katherine Karl, which was able to refinance her house at 2. 875%, who expresses that her desire to refinance was because of the istoric low of interest rates. Many others like Karl have also taken opportunities to refinance their homes. Although those companies have survived, and Karl lowered her rate by 2. 5 percentage points, not all are seeing such positive effects. In an article by Robin Sidel of the Wall Street Journal, â€Å"Regional Bank Lands Big-City Deal†, we can see the downside of these low interest rates. (Sidel) Hudson City, a mortgage lender based in Parmus, N. J. , has 135 branches, and has assets of $43. 6 billion, decide d to sell itself to M&T Bank Corp. , which is a regional bank.Hudson City’s loan portfolio was largely focused in mortgages, due to the drop in interest rates and the refinancing, the value of the portfolio dropped along with the interest rates. Once Hudson City had started to see a devalue of their portfolio, they had considered transforming themselves into a commercial lender. However, after much thought the Chief Executive Ronald Hermance decided this would take too long and increase their staff tremendously. (Sidel)This then led to the selling of Hudson City to M&T Bank Corp. If interest rates continue to remain low we can expect to see more mergers and smaller banks selling out.In Chapter 5 of the book, there is an application called â€Å"Explaining Low Japanese Interest Rates†, which can help better understand the negative effect of low interest rates. In the 1990s and early 2000s, Japanese interest rates became the lowest in the world, in November of 1998, the interest rate on Japanese six-month Treasury bills actually turned negative. In correlation with the extremely low interest rates was a prolonged recession, which was followed with deflation. As we learned in the book, the negative inflation causes an increase in the demand for bonds, because of the decrease in expected return on real assets.This in turn caused the demand curve to shift to the right. The negative inflation also raised the real interest rate, thereby causing the supply of bonds to adjust, moving the supply curve to the left. In the end this led to an increase in the bond price and a decrease of interest rates. In the book it explains to us that the interest rate is negatively related to the bond price. In other words, when the equilibrium bond price rises, the equilibrium interest rate falls and vise-versa. There are other factors which led to the down fall of interest rates in the Japanese market.For example, the lack of profitable investments opportunities in Japan , and the business cycle contraction and the decrease of wealth during the business cycle contractions. These all would lead to the increase in bond price and the decrease of interest rates. This application shows us that low interest rates are not a good thing. In Japan’s case, the low and negative interest rates were a sign that their economy was in trouble with falling prices and a contracting economy. The interest will only rise back to normal levels when their economy returns back to a better economy.Fitzpatrick goes on to explain that because of the low interest rates banks will have to consider new ways to make money like Hudson City considered, by offering other services. However, higher cost of those banking services could lead to losing customers in the financial world which would then in return have a negative effect. He predicts that â€Å"Over time, subdues bank profits are likely to accelerate a shakeout that has halved the number of insured institutions over t he past two decades†. (Fitzpatrick) He states this will happen by the pressure for smaller banks to take advantage of new technologies.The banks are suffering from the low interest rates in more ways than one. The low interest rates affect the bank’s benefit of holding depositors’ cash at the low rates. The problem with this is that many banks are stuck with a large increase in money to invest during which returns on securities are decreased. These deposit rates are at their lowest since the 50’s. (Fitzpatrick) Another way banks are suffering is due to the fact that they bet on higher-yielding mortgage bonds before rates fall. To counteract their losses banks are increasing loan prices.They are doing this in hopes of regaining their losses from the low interest rates, or refinancing of mortgages. In conclusion, although the low interest rates show a profit for some, the long term effect of low interest rates is bad for us. The low interest rates are a sign that are economy is in trouble, opposite of what the Fed is trying, just as in Japan. For our economy to return to a healthy economy, the interest rates will need to return to a normal level. Many banks will be forced to merger or sell out. Other banks will be forced to create new services. There will be an increased cost in the banking system, by increasing loan prices.The financial crisis and the Fed attempt to strengthen the economy have proven to be the derivative of the low interest rates which is driving the banking system, and mortgage lenders into chaos. Fitzpatrick describes it perfectly by quoting Mr. Lied saying Many smaller banks will â€Å"throw in the towel† and sell, as Hudson City did, if low rates persist, Mr. Lied said. â€Å"There are no magic bullets and there is no easy answer. † Works Cited Fitzpatrick, Dan. â€Å"Low Rates Pummel Banks. † Wall Street Journal 23 October 2012: A1. Sidel, Robin. â€Å"Regional Bank Lands Big-City Deal. â₠¬  Wall Street Journal 28 August 2012: C1.

European Exploration and Trade

There was once a time in our history, before computerized maps and satellites and tracking programs. Sailors had to guide themselves by the stars and very basic and inaccurate maps. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Europe there was advancement in technology and learning that led to widespread exploration and trade among countries. The introduction of the compass, advancements in cartography, the printing press, and other inventions led to increased trade and exploration throughout Europe.Before the fifteenth century, sailors often didn’t venture far from what they knew because maps were extremely inaccurate and weather was unpredictable. In the fourteenth century a style of maps, called portolon charts, were introduced. These were pictures of harbors, ports, cities, and coastlines inscribed on sheepskin. These maps were valuable to the merchant and traders between cities, but to the explorer changing continents they were basically useless. The compass was also a maj or improvement to previous methods.Before this invention, sailors used the stars to navigate and stay on their somewhat planned course. However, during the day they were at a loss. When the compass was invented, it allowed sailors to know their bearing all the time. People soon learned to notice and pay more attention to weather patterns while sailing. They discovered the trade winds among the seas and noted where they were in relation to each other and what their effects on shipping were. The winds caused either a faster and smoother trip or a longer and rougher voyage, depending on the direction of the ship and the wind involved.This was an advancement to previous methods because they now knew what to expect and prepare for instead of guessing or being surprised. They could also plan routes and try new routes. This led to a period of time called the Age of Sail. The printing press was one of the biggest and most important inventions of this time period. Before, literature and docu ments were scarce and not very common. After the printing press was introduced, literary works and various types of documents were more available to the common person. This encouraged people to become more educated because they now had the means to do it.The printing press also had an effect on cartography. Because maps had to be either inscribed or drawn, they were rare and not very public. After the printing press, maps were able to be duplicated and shared with other cartographers. In doing this, they could compare their maps with other peoples and create a newer and more accurate representation of the land and sea. This caused people to become more sure and trusting of these maps, making them venture out further than they had before, thus increasing trade. The design and size of ships were also changing during this time.The Europeans began to incorporate the methods of other countries, such as China, into their own shipbuilding process. One change was the multiple sails on the s hip which allowed for better upwind travel. The all-in-one rudder was also a major improvement because it allowed for easier and faster steering and better control and stability of the keel. All in all, various changes and improvements occurred during this time. Inventions and improvements such as map making, compasses, understanding of weather patterns, and the printing press were all factors in the increase in exploration and trade in Europe.

The Missouri Compromise Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Missouri Compromise - Research Paper Example Slavery was a system in which the black men were compelled to live under the command of their masters. Slaves were not paid for their work and they were not permitted to learn to read and write. They were punished harshly for even small mistakes and their life was full of sorrow and misery. The clash between the supporters of the slavery system and the anti slavery faction in the United States reached its peak and in 1920 an agreement has been made between these two political groups in admitting the Missourian territory to be a part of the United States by giving the status of a slave state. This is termed as the Missouri compromise. The growth of Missouri as a State Missouri was a territory purchased by the United States from France in1803. It was a part of the Louisiana territory which was under the French rule and the laws were supporting slavery in this region and she experienced the migration of slave owners from Southern States and from other provinces of Louisiana. Missourians started demanding for the formation of a new state and an entry in to the Union by 1818. During 1870s the Northern states started the exclusion of slavery and the northern lawmakers despised the growth of slavery in other states like Missouri. But the consideration of the plan to grand statehood and an entrance for Missouri to the union raised arguments among the representatives and senators in the congress. Missouri already had more than 2000 slaves and majority of the people demanded the continuation of slavery system but the Northerners were afraid of the spread of slaves to the other states of the union. In 1820 Missouri became the part of the United States with the status of a slave state. It was primarily a political struggle that followed for two years but the evils of slavery were fully considered in the course of discussion1. Beginning of the debate Congress failed to admit the Missourian statehood in 1818 and a second attempt has been made by Tallmadge to change the bill in 1819 who was not at all a supporter of slavery and recommended the formation of a slave free Missouri by adding two clauses to prevent the entry of new slaves to the state and to free the children of the slaves when they become adults. These two clauses paved way for debates among the Lawmakers. Tallmadge never expected the congress to accept suggestions but expected to â€Å"have produced moral effects which will eventually (save) our beloved country from disgrace and danger†2. Northerners never supported slavery and the system of considering human beings as property; consequently, they recommended not permitting the slaves of the new state to vote if slavery is allowed there. It was the constitutional duty of the Congress to ensure republican rule in its newly formed states. A few of the lawmakers were not in favour of the abolition of slavery from the existing states but they argued for the removal of slavery from the newly formed states. They were afraid of the spread of slaves to other areas of the Union especially to the Free states which would result in political weakening. Southerners, who were in favour of slavery, opposed all these arguments. They suggested that freedom could be given to the state to take decision over slavery. There were so many ideological factors which separated the southerners and northerners and slavery was one and the foremost among them. Their interests and needs were different. Northerners supported laws which could help production and foreign trade whereas

U10a2 Life Cycle of the Stars Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

U10a2 Life Cycle of the Stars Paper - Essay Example Astronomers can determine the mass, age, chemical composition and many other properties of a star by observing its spectrum, luminosity and motion through space. The total mass of a star is the principal determinant in its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star are determined by its evolutionary history, including diameter, rotation, movement and temperature. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities, known as a Hertzprung-Russell diagrams (H–R diagram), allows the age and evolutionary state of a star to be determined. Stellar evolution is the process by which a star undergoes a sequence of radical changes during its lifetime. Depending on the mass of the star, this lifetime ranges from only a few million years (for the most massive) to trillions of years (for the least massive, which is considerably more than the age of the universe). Stellar evolution is not studied by observing the life of a single star, as most stellar changes occur too slowly to be detected, even over many centuries. Instead, astrophysicists come to understand how stars evolve by observing numerous stars at the various points in their life, and by simulating stellar structure with computer models. Stellar Evolution: A nebula is a cloud of gas (hydrogen) and dust in space. Nebulae are the birthplaces of stars. There are different types of nebula. An Emission Nebula which glows brightly because the gas in it is energized by the stars that have already formed within it. In a Reflection Nebula, starlight reflects on the grains of dust in a nebula. The nebula surrounding the Pleiades Cluster is typical of a reflection nebula. Dark Nebula also exists. These are dense clouds of molecular hydrogen which partially or completely absorb the light from stars behind them. 1st stage of a stars life: PROTOSTAR Stellar evolution begins with the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud (GMC). As it collapses, a GMC breaks into smaller and small er pieces. In each of these fragments, the collapsing gas releases gravitational potential energy as heat. As its temperature and pressure increase, a fragment condenses into a rotating sphere of superhot gas known as a prostar. Protostars with masses less than roughly 0.08Â  M (1.6?1029 kg) never reach temperatures high enough for nuclear fusion of hydrogen to begin. These are known as brown dwarfs. For a more massive prostar, the core temperature will eventually reach 10 million kelvins, initiating the proton-proton chain reaction and allowing hydrogen to fuse, first to deuterium and then to helium. The onset of nuclear fusion leads relatively quickly to a hydrostatic equilibrium in which energy released by the core exerts a "radiation pressure" balancing the weight of the star's matter, preventing further gravitational collapse. The star thus evolves rapidly to a stable state, beginning the main sequence phase of its evolution. A new star will fall at a specific point on the mai n sequence of the Hertzprung-Russell diagrams, with the main sequence spectral type depending upon the mass of the star. Small, relatively cold, low mass red dwarfs burn hydrogen slowly and will remain on the main sequence for hundreds of billions of years, while massive, hot super giants will leave the main sequence after just a few million years. A mid-sized star like the Sun will remain on the main sequence for about 10 billion years. . A star of less than about 0.5 solar mass will

Texting While Driving Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Texting While Driving - Essay Example The familiar text tone emitted from my mobile phone that was holstered in its holder clip in front of my air-conditioning vent. I glanced down at it and saw the information â€Å"1 new text: Mother†. Having driven down this road many times before, and often times answering text messages as I did that, I thought nothing of grabbing my phone from its holder and opening the message to read it, glancing up at the road once in a while to make sure I did not crash into a tree or something. She was worried that I had left without having any breakfast and I had forgotten to tell her that I was leaving early. She just wanted to know where I was headed out to. As I began answering the message, another message came in from my best friend, which I also felt an immediate need to respond to. Pretty soon, I was driving with one hand and texting with the other while my eyes darted back and forth between the two activities that divided my brain concentration. Then I suddenly heard a bump and m y car thudded over whatever it was that was lying on the road that I had not seen. I got down from the car and checked under neath. I had hit an obviously family owned dog whose master was currently running towards me, shouting in anger. Although I had taken the animal to the vet and paid for the medical expenses, a police officer still came over to investigate what happened.

The reality of work cultures in the modern economy Essay - 1

The reality of work cultures in the modern economy - Essay Example These issues are explored in this paper. The study of Sennett (1999) is used as the core source for explaining the various aspects of the above problems. It is proved that in modern organizational employees are under severe pressures no matter their position in the organizational hierarchy. In the modern workplace the employment relationship has been highly transformed. Emphasis is given not on the respect of routine of work but rather on the high exposure to risk and on the potential to follow â€Å"orders on short notice† (Sennett 1999, p.9). The new status of work is therefore characterized by extensive flexibility (Sennett 1999), a trend that threatens traditional work values, such as commitment and trust. Indeed, an employee who has to face continuous changes in his work schedule is likely to feel less committed to his organization. The need to follow a highly flexible mode of employment has led employees to become more anxious (Sennett 1999). In the long term, this practice can lead to irreversible problems in employees’ performance, harming, at the next level, employees’ health (Sennett 1999). In other words, the modern ways of working can injure employees, even if it may takes a bit of time for the relevant injuries to appear clearly. For S mil (2013) the expansion of IT systems in the workplace has led to the limitation of organizations’ needs in terms of workforce, a phenomenon which is clearer in the manufacturing industry. In this context, IT technology has injured employees by limiting their value in the workplace. At the same time, the modern employment relations framework has also influenced employees’ character. This issue is made clear through the following fact: character, as a critical characteristic of humans, includes a range of elements, such as: the personal values and commitment, the goals set in regard to personal and professional life and the hierarchy of personal needs and desires

Sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sociology - Essay Example The research methods should be realized as means of acting on the environment and their quality can be judged by their ability to yield reliable results. The act of making observations in life is largely dependent on personal fancy, bias, ideological preferences etc. Therefore, the scientific process of building reliability and validity in life is essential and it should be based on the features of discovery and verification. Both discovery and verification are essential components of finding reliability and validity in life. Consequently, the scientific basis of sociology clearly suggests that the discovery process and the issues of verification should be given equal significance in research methods. â€Å"If priority is given to the discovery process, the issues of verification, reliability, and validity become more than technical in nature†¦ If issues of verification are placed above the discovery process, a wedge is driven between the goals and the methods of sociology.â₠¬  (Douglas, 268) In the former case, the quality of research is determined by the public elements, whereas the latter case the goals and the methods of sociology are affected. Therefore, discovery as well as verification should be given equal relevance in finding reliability and validity in life.

Information Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Information Security - Research Paper Example With the increase in the use of distributed computing, mobile computing and the fast growth in the adoption of internet for business communication, there is an increased need for information security. The adoption of these technologies exposes businesses to information theft and fraud through various attacks such as phishing, DoS and virus attacks. Without security for information, a business organization stands a chance of catastrophic disruptions through downtime in business critical systems. In the event of restoring such systems a business organization incurs unnecessary and unwanted costs. (Gordon & Loeb, 2002) Violation of privacy; business needs to be able to protect both customer and employee information, failure to which can result into legal actions and penalties. Financial loss; theft of commercial information such as business plans, intellectual property or customer contracts can financially damage a business organization. Immediate financial impacts can be felt by a business in case of a computer fraud by a staff member. The penalties and fines associated with failure to protect privacy of information about its customers including its staff severely damage the reputation and credibility of the business. Information security generally stresses on the preservation of three factors associated with information; confidentially, availability and integrity among others like authorization, authentication and non repudiation. Confidentiality is information secrecy preservation; that is ensuring that such information as financial projections, technical designs and business reports are only vied by authorized personnel. Integrity ensures that information has not been manipulated or tampered with; it ensures that information can be relied upon to be accurate to its purpose. The availability aspect of information security ensures that information is accessible to the authorized persons at the required time

The Origin Of Anatomically Modern Essay Example for Free

The Origin Of Anatomically Modern Essay Introduction The origin of modern humans and the fate of the Neanderthals are two of the most hotly debated topics in paleoanthropologist   Recent fossil finds new information from the field of molecular genetics that led to a re-evaluation of the question of the origin of the modern human beings. Where, when and how did modern human beings first appear? These critical questions have engaged anthropologists since the birth of their science. In last several decades paleoanthropologists have concentrated in solving the problems of Plea- Pleistocene origins of our genus, Homo. Interest in this issue remains passionate, but we have grown to understand that the origin of our species, Homo sapiens, is the outcome of an equally interesting and complete set of evolutionary factors.   Origin of Homo Sapiens and the Fate of Neanderthals   Neanderthal refers to a group of morphologically distinct human fossils. It is found throughout Western Eurasia way back ca. 130,000-30,000 BP. They evolved in Europe from Homo heidelbergensis populations, such as those from Sima de los Huesos in Atapuerca, Spain, Steinheim in Germany and Petralona in Greece. The primary Neanderthal fossils of the Levant come from the cave sites of Tabun, Amud, Kebara, and Dederiyeh, as well as Shanidar Cave in northern Iraq. Neanderthals physically were ruggedly built, with thick chests and relatively short limbs, a body shape today found among arctic populations. The modern humans evolved from archaic Homo sapiens primarily in East Africa.   A 195,000 year old fossil from the site in Ethiopia shows the beginnings of the skull changes that we associate with modern people, including a rounded skull case and possibly a projecting chin. A 160,000 year old skull from the Herto site in the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia also seems to be at the early stages of this evolution.   It had the rounded skull case but retained the large brow ridges of archaic Homo sapiens.   Somewhat more advanced intermediary forms have been found at Laetoli in Tanzania dating to about 120,000 years ago.   By 115,000 years ago, early modern humans had expanded their range to South Africa and into Southwest Asia shortly after 100,000 years ago.   Evidently, they did not appear elsewhere in the Old World until 60,000-40,000 years ago.   This was during a short temperate period in the midst of the last ice age.   The Fossil and Genetic study of Homo Sapiens and Fate of Neanderthal   At present the only way of studying ancient ancestors was through old fossils and stone tools. As we go back further in time fossils become rarer. Of the billions of people who lived before the invention of agriculture only the fossilized remains of a few hundred have been found. In the absence of fossils, human DNA that transmits genetic information from one generation to the next has proved to be a valuable tool in recording the evolution of the human species. Two pieces of the human genome are particularly useful in discovering human history. One is the Mitochondrial DNA and the other is the Y chromosome. These are the only two parts of the genome that are not interchanged about by the evolutionary mechanisms designed to generate diversity with each generation. Hence the Mitochondrial DNA and the Y chromosome are passed down generation to generation intact. Studies of modern DNA, especially mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which occurs only in the cellular organelles called mitochondria, reveal that humans are amazingly homogeneous, with rather little genetic variation.   In fact, there is significantly more genetic variation between two individual chimpanzees drawn from the same population than there is between two humans drawn randomly from a single population. Until recently, the Levant was seen as furnishing the strongest evidence for a biocultural transition between the Neanderthals and early modern human populations. In the mid-1980s, geophysicists had developed several methods, thermoluminescence, electron-spin resonance, and uranium-series, for dating sites older than 40,000 BP that provided revolutionary results. While estimated ages for the Levantine Neanderthals were broadly comparable to those from Europe, between 65,000-47,000 BP, the new dating methods showed that the early modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh date to 130,000-80,000 BP, older than the Neanderthals who were supposedly their ancestors (Valladas et al. 1998). Minimally, these new dates call for a reinterpretation of Neanderthal vs. early modern human biological and behavioral contrasts. Overview from the revolution of Homo sapiens and the Fate of Neanderthal The evolution of these two hotly debated topics in paleoanthropologists was basically about to, when and where they lived, their physical appearance, their way of living and to whom they originated. According to paleoanthropologists and some people who showed interest in studying those ancient people is that Neanderthals lived in Europe while the coming of modern man or the Homo sapiens was essentially compared to Asian people. There are many similarities in the Neanderthals’ and early modern humans’ according to archaeological records. Both lived in similar Mediterranean woodland habitats and occupied Kars tic caves. Both hunted and gathered the same range of animal species. Such similarities are to be expected between closely related hominids, but they do not necessarily imply a close social or cultural relationship. Instead, evidence for evolutionarily significant behavioral differences between Neanderthals and early modern humans is likely to be delicate, reflected in the different strategies these humans used to realize their settlement, survival, and social goals. The specific topic they end up of arguments was about their physical appearance in which each of them was distinguish by a unique set of anatomical features. The Neanderthals are characterized with a large, long, low cranial vault with a well-developed double-arched brow ridge. a massive facial skeleton with a very projecting mid-face, backward sloping cheeks, and large nasal aperture, with large nasal sinuses an oddly shaped occipital region of the skull with a bulge or bun molars with enlarged pulp chambers, and large, often very heavily worn incisors a mandible lacking a chin and possessing a large gap behind the last molar  . While the Homo sapiens were a cranial vault with a vertical forehead, rounded occipital and reduced brow ridge, a reduced facial skeleton lacking a projecting mid-face  a lower jaw sporting a chin, a more modern, less robustly built skeleton. These two descriptions gave much idea on how they differ each other. Are we genetically different from our Homo sapiens ancestors who lived 10-20,000 years ago?   The answer is almost certainly yes.   In fact, it is very likely that the rate of evolutionary change for our species has continuously accelerated since the end of the last ice age, roughly 10,000 years ago.  The evidence for a biocultural transition between the Neanderthals and early modern human populations they creatively construct social and cultural identities that transcend actual biological kinship (Wobst 1977). The best-documented early examples of symbolic artifacts are bone, ivory and stone beads from â€Å"Aurignacian†.   This is mostly due to the fact that our human population has deliberately grown and moved into new kinds of environments, including cities.   This has exerted strong selection for individuals who were fortunate to have immune systems that allowed them to survive.   We have been exposed to new kinds of environmental pollution that can cause increased mutation rates. There has been a marked change in diet for most people around the globe to one that is less varied and now predominantly vegetarian with a heavy dependence on foods made from cereal grains.   It is not entirely clear what all of the consequences of these environmental and behavioral changes have been.   However, it does appear that the average human body size has become somewhat shorter over the last 10,000 years. Finally, can we say what direction human evolution will take in the future?   This is a captivating question to consider but impossible to answer because of innumerable unknown factors.   Though, it is certain that we will continue to evolve until we reach the point of realizing factored that could possibly affect our lives. Bibliography Aiello, L.C. The fossil evidence for modern human origins in Africa: A revised view. In American Anthropologist, 1993. vol. 95, no. 1, pp. 73-96. Bar-Yosef, O. 1995. â€Å"Modern Human Origins and Neanderthal Extinctions in the Levant   ,† Athena Publications, Inc.( 2001). Accessed September 27, 2007 http://www.athenapub.com/8shea1.htm   â€Å"Early Modern Homo Sapiens.† Dennis ONeil (2007). Accessed September 27, 2007   Ã‚   http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_4.htm â€Å"Homo Sapiens.† Smithsonian Institution (2000). Accessed September 27, 2007 http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm Johanson, Donald. â€Å"Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?† American Institute of Biological Sciences (2001). Accessed September 27, 2007 http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html Kreger, David C. Homo sapiens.† Archaeologist .com (2005). Accessed September 27, 2007 http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/homosapiens.htm -2005    McBrearty, Sally. â€Å"The Origin of Modern Humans.† JSTOR (2007). Accessed September 27, 2007 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0025-1496%28199003%292%3A25%3A1%3C129%3ATOOMH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Wsize=LARGEorigin=JSTOR-enlargePage ArchaeologyInfo.com All Rights Reserved â€Å"Recent single origin hypothesis.† Wikimedia Foundation, Inc (2007). Accessed September 27, 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_of_Africa_theory

Why Is Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude Important Environmental Sciences Essay

Why Is Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude Important Environmental Sciences Essay Explain With Examples Why the Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Is Of Such Key Importance for the Glacier-Climate Relationship. Palaeoclimatic reconstructions based on the limits of former glaciers use estimates of the associated equilibrium line altitudes (Benn and Gemmell 1997). The equilibrium line altitude is defined as the elevation at which mass balance is equal, where accumulation of snow is exactly balanced by ablation over a period of a year (Hoinkes, 1970) meaning that mass balance and the equilibrium line altitude for individual glaciers are usually strongly correlated (Braithwaite and Raper 2010). Therefore there is a very close connection between the Equilibrium Line Altitude and local climate, providing an important indicator of glacier response to climate change and hence allowing for reconstructions of former climates and the prediction of future glacier behaviour (Benn and Lehmkuhl, 2000). In order to truly understand the, often complicated, relationship between a glaciers equilibrium line altitude and the corresponding climate of the local area, definitions of mass balance, accumulation and ablation area and the equilibrium line altitude, must be initially discussed. The ablation area is the lower region of a glacier where snow loss (ablation) exceeds snowfall. The melting of the glacier and the calving of icebergs is the major form of ablation, expressed quantitatively as units of water equivalent, given in meters (Braithwaite 2002). The accumulation area is the upper region of a glacier where snow accumulation exceeds melting. A simplified description in the identification of a cirque depicts the area being an arm chair-shaped bowl (Flint 1971) with the headwall exceeding 35 degrees and the arcuate floor underachieving 20 degrees (Evans 1977). Accumulation occurs mostly through snowfall whether it is direct or blown from neighbouring plateaus and summits. The equilibrium line altitude (ELA) is the boundary between the ablation area and the accumulation area, the elevation at which mass balance is equal, where accumulation of snow is exactly balanced by ablation over a period of a year (Hoinkes 1970). Glacier mass balance is the total difference between the gains and losses over a given period of time, for example a calculation of positive mass, explains that the glacier is gaining mass overall and a negative calculation when the glacier is being seen as losing mass (Benn and Evans 1997). On many glaciers, the amount of annual ablation and accumulation varies systematically with altitude, although this simple pattern is often complicated by local influences. Glacier mass balance reflects the climate of the region in which the glacier is situated together with site specific glacier morphology and local topographic setting. The idea of mass balance is therefore an important link between climatic inputs and glacier behaviour allowing the advance and retreat of many glaciers to be understood in terms of region or global climatic change. Because the equilibrium line is the place where annual accumulation totals exactly balance ablation totals, the ELA is closely connected with local climate, particularly precipitation and air temperatures, being highly sensitive to perturbations in either of these 2 variables, with rises in response to decreasing snowfall and/or increasing frequency of positive air temperatures and vice versa (Benn and Evans 1997). Perhaps the best illustration of glacier-climate interaction is the relationship between the net balance and the ELA. When the annual mass balance of the glacier as a whole is negative the ELA rises, and when the balance is positive, the ELA falls. Variations in the altitude of the equilibrium line on a particular glacier, therefore, can be used as an indicator of climatic fluctuations (Kuhn, 1981). It is useful to specify the climate at the ELA as some unique combination of precipitation and temperature. (Benn and Evans) If a climate change occurs that increases the mass balance the glacier will advance, in an attempt to reach a new equilibrium position. The surplus of accumulation that exists must be balanced by an increase in ablation, which is accomplished by expanding the low-elevation terminus zone of the ablation area. If a climate change occurs that overall reduces the mass balance, the glacier will retreat in an attempt to achieve equilibrium. The retreat will reduce the area of the glacier in the lowest elevation terminus area where ablation is highest. If by retreat mass balance equilibrium is reached the glacier will cease retreating. However, the definition of the ELA initially does not imply that the glacier is in equilibrium and therefore the glacier may be gaining or losing mass on an annual basis. The ELA value associated with zero annual mass balance for the whole glacier is known as the steady-state ELA. When the annual ELA coincides with the steady-state ELA, ice mass and geometry are in equilibrium with climate, and the glacier will neither grow nor shrink. (Benn and Lehmkuhl 2000) However, majority of individual glacier ELAs deviate significantly from local climate ideals due, for example, to patterns of shading and snow redistribution by wind and avalanching. The main variables affecting mass balance at the ELA are winter precipitation (accumulation) and summer temperatures (ablation). A strong relationship exists between summer temperature and precipitation at the ELA of modern glaciers and this has been shown empirically by Ohmura et al. (1992) for 70 glaciers worldwide. Ohmura et al. found that winter accumulation plus summer precipitation (= annual precipitation) had a close relationship with summer temperature (Jun/July/Aug) However, Hughes and Braithwaite (2008) showed that the relationship between accumulation and summer temperature at the glacier ELA was more complicated with annual temperature range playing an important role. They continued to show that because of the role of annual temperature range, there must be a relationship between annual mean temperature and accumulation on a glacier Within the following pages the focus develops upon tropical glaciers in the Andes range, due to their particular degree of variance along latitude in relation to the zero degree isotherm. The difference between the ELA and 0 °C isotherm is a good indicator of the sensitivity of tropical glaciers to climatic global warming. It rises significantly from below zero meters in the inner tropics to several hundred metres in the outer tropics. From below zero degrees: the 0 °C isotherm is above the ELA (Kaser and George 1997). Thus, glaciers in the outer tropics may be more easily affected by changes in precipitation as it governs the albedo and radiation balance. The outer tropics and inner tropics vary significantly regarding this, illustrating the extent of variability of glacier-climate relationships. Within the Peruvian Andes, mass accumulation takes place only during the wet season and predominately in the upper parts of the glaciers, whereas ablation occurs throughout the whole ye ar. Thus, the vertical budget gradient is much stronger on tropical tongues than on those in mid latitudes (Lliboutry, morales and Schneider, 1997). Consequently under equilibrium conditions, tropical ablation areas are markedly smaller and the accumulation area ratio (AAR) has to be considered larger than in mid latitudes (Kaser and George 1997). (Benn et al 2005) Glaciers of the tropics and subtropics inhabit high altitudes and differ in important ways from mid-and high-latitude glaciers in lower topographic settings. Consequently the methods used to reconstruct and interpret former glacier equilibrium line altitudes in low altitude regions need to be tailored to local conditions, as methods and protocols developed for other settings may not be appropriate. Annual variations in mean daily temperatures are smaller than diurnal temperatures ranges. This constancy in the mean daily temperatures in the topics means that the 0 degree Celsius atmospheric isotherm maintains a fairly constant altitude and ablation occurs on the lower parts of glaciers all year. Vertical mass balance profiles are also influenced by climatic setting. In the humid tropics ablation gradients tend to be steeper than in drier environments, due to altitudinal variations in the amount of snow, sleet and rain falling on the ablation zone during the wet months. Thus the mass balance profiles of tropical glaciers tend to exhibit a sharper inflection at the equilibrium line than those of mid latitudes glaciers. The accurate reconstruction of past ELAs requires that the extent and morphology of the former glaciers can be accurately determined. Furthermore the age of the reconstructed glacier needs to be determined to enable researchers to use the ELAs as proxies for past climatic conditions (Benn 2005). The simplest assumption is that all ELA can be attributed to changes in temperature, which can be estimated by using an assumed average environmental lapse rate in the atmosphere. However, if there were associated changes in precipitation, the estimated temperature change would be different. The point applies even in humid tropics. For example, Kaser and Osmaston 2002 found that 20th century changes in the ELAs of glaciers in the Cordillera Blanca cannot be determined by temperature changes alone, but were also influenced by changes in humidity. However, the difficulty of separating out the temperature and precipitation signals need not negate the usefulness of ELA in providing palaeoclimatic information. Glaciers of the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca region represent more than 25% of all tropical glaciers with the 260 glaciers stretching for 130km, reaching 6000m level at several summits. The climate is characterised by small seasonal but large daily temperature variations and the alteration of a pronounced dry season and wet season bringing 70-80% of the annual precipitation. ELA recordings were taken for the 1930s and 1950s on the massif of Santa Cruz, Alpamayo, Pucahirca, in the northern part of the cordillera Blanca by Kaser and George in 1997. The Accumulation Area method was utilised to determine the mean ELA, results highlighting a general reduction of precipitation amounts, mainly during the wet season and therefore a reduction in accumulation. A vertical shift of 35 to 58 meters was also observed a significant rise showing glacier shrinkage and tongue retreat. It is suggested that a reduction in air humidity and its effect on the above mentioned atmospheric circulation system i s the main reason for this determined retreat of the glaciers between 1930 and 1950 as it influences the mass balance in various respects. Furthermore, the rise of the ELA shows different values across the Santa Cruz Pucahirca massif. Concluding, Kaser and George (1997) notify the reader that a combination of spatially uniform rising in air temperature and a decrease in air humidity with spatially different effects has to be taken into account as a cause for the glacier retreat between 1930 and 1950. A second case study, located between 8.5 and 9 °N, the Cordillera de Merida within the Venezuelan Andes, a region within the tropics, which possesses evidence suggesting glacial ice coverage was abundant in the past. Three geographic sub-regions were studied by Schubert (1984) with the view to reconstruct 9 palaeoglaciers. Two methods to determine ELA were used to develop paleoclimatic assumptions: Accumulation Area Ratio method and the Accumulation Area Balance Ratio. The above methods enabled the approximation of ELA during the LGM (last glacial maximum). Results acquired from the study were that the ELA of the individual glaciers lowered in response to decreased air temperatures and increased snow during the LGM. The in depth Investigation revealed the ELA of the 9 observed glaciers would have experienced a lowering of roughly 850-1420m throughout the LGM, coinciding with decreased air temperatures. The palaeoglacier reconstruction demonstrated the spatial extent to which the eq uilibrium line altitude is susceptible to change in response to climatic changes within the Cordillera de Merida. Conclusions implied a support towards a later proposition that a glaciers ELA is closely connected with the surrounding local climate (Benn and Lehmkuhl 2000). The following final case study locates within the Cordillera Real and Cordillera de Quimsa Cruz, in the Bolivian Andes, due to the low latitude, glaciation within the area is reduced and glaciers are small (80% cover less than 0.5  km ²). Within the study Rabatel et al (2008) 15 proglacial margins were investigated, leading to a further reduction of 10 principle moraines being identified that mark the successive positions of glaciers over the last four centuries. The ELA was determined on each glacier using the Accumulation Area Ratio method. The reconstruction of the glacier ELA and observations of any changes in mass balance, Rabatel et al (2998) expressed that glacier maximum may be due to a 20 to 30% increase in precipitation and a 1.1 to 1.2 degrees Celsius decrease in temperature compared with present conditions. Increasing accumulation of snow above the ELA suggests snowfalls have a strong influence on the net radiative balance in the ablation zone via the albedo. The rese archers continue to explain that within the early 18th century, glaciers began to retreat at varying rates until the late 19th to early 20th century; this trend was generally associated with decreasing accumulation rates. By contrast, glacier recession in the 20th century was mainly the consequence of an increase in temperature and humidity. Although the ELA of a glacier, past or present can be a first-rate proxy for the glacier-climate relationship, the methodology chosen can greatly effect the interpretation of the results. Different reconstruction methods of changes in ELA may produce a range of results for the same glacier and therefore inconsistent and unreliable conclusions will be inferred. Ramage et al (2005) compared ELA reconstruction methods within the Junà ­n Plain in the central Peruvian Andes. Descriptions of each method were given and limitations were highlighted. The Toe-to-Headwall Altitude Ration method, a commonly used method due to its relative ease of determining ELAs using map data, expressed that low errors were still evident. The Accumulation Area Ratio method: based on the empirically derived ratio of accumulation area to total area of glacier, however, AARs are likely to be highly variable between glaciers even within small regions, depending on the extent and distribution of debris cover in th e ablation area, and the relative importance of direct snowfall and avalanching as mechanisms of accumulation (Benn and Lehmkuhl 2000) A more accurate method of palaeo ELA calculation is the Furbish and Andrews (1984) Accumulation Area Balance Ratio a method developed due to the inconsistencies within the AAR not accounting for altitudinal distribution of a glaciers surface area. Therefore, this method can be used to derive ELA under assumed steady-state conditions and uses an idealised linear mass balance curve to calculate ELA. Ramage et al (2005) concluded that the methods did not greatly differ for this region and morphology, yet each method possessed different correlation values. The relationships between climate, glaciers and topography are, however, not those of simple cause and effect but are characterized by interdependence. They are also scale and time-dependent in that as a glacier grows it increasingly modifies its climate and the topography (Sutherland 1984). In addition Hodge et al (1998) suggests that although the ELA is a phenomenal proxy for determining glacier climate relationships, it can unfortunately be influenced by other non-climatic factors; for example avalanche, topographic variances and debris fall (Hodge et al 1998). Avalanche can equal increased accumulation, thus a positive mass balance equating to an ELA fall. This can occur regardless of climatic influence; therefore the resulting ELA may not give a 100% accurate representation of the glacier-climate relationship. Smith et al (2005) argues further, that reconstructed tropical LGM ELA lowering may be due to local enhancing factors not solely climate. Additionally, glacier melting, co upled with avalanches, climate and local geographic topography may distort the observed ELA with reference to climatic impact therefore not 100% accurate for indicating glacier-climate relationship. In addition to the ELA other variables have been measured that allow inferences to be made about the relationship between glaciers and the associated past climate. Radiation is a major component in the ablation of ice from glaciers and the effectiveness of radiation on a glacier is a function of the aspect, slope and nature of the snow or ice cover of the glacier surface as well as latitude, date and time of day (Sutherland 1984). Various energy-balance models (Williams, 1975; 1979; Kuhn, 1981) have been devised to model these factors and explain the distribution of present-day and former glaciers as well as investigate general glacier/climate relationships. In the South East Grampians, Sissons and Sutherland (1976) established that the deviation of one unit of the isolation factor from the local value for a horizontal glacier was equivalent to raising or lowering the ELA by 25 m, thus providing a physical link between the two variables. Studies of modern glaciers, particularly of the relationships between their mass balance and the local climate, have provided a sound physical basis on which past climates can be inferred from former glaciers. Studies of the mass balance of modern glaciers have indicated that the equilibrium line altitude is the most critical parameter in the link between glaciers and climate (Sutherland 1984). In relation to tropical glacier regions, sharp changes in the area of the 0 °C isotherm level, highlights the sensitivity of the ELA to climatic changes, posing the notion that to truly understand the complex association between the ELA and the glacier-climate relationship, knowledge on its relative position to the 0 °c level is required. Furthermore, it is safe to assume that the ELA to some extent is a good indicator of climatic change especially in relation to tropical glaciers which have a greater degree of sensitivity to climate. However, it must be noted that there are non-climatic i nfluences upon the calculated ELA for any glacier, past or present and therefore the glacier-climate relationship is a far more complex issue to observe and understand.

Thermal Conductivity In Physical Engineering Engineering Essay

Thermal Conductivity In Physical Engineering Engineering Essay Thermal Conductivity  is an essential physical property for designing engineering process and measuring the capacity of temperature exchange between heat and cold passing through a material mass. Techniques were developed to measure thermal conductivity in a various materials, Hence the objective of this work was to evaluate the feasibility of utilizing different methods for measuring thermal conductivity as well as construction of the experimental assemble to measure thermal conductivity of numerous materials with the aim of analysis of the experimental data. This paper illustrates the methods of the measurements of thermal conductivity and the process by which it will be brought to a successful culmination. The study of thermal conductivity is important for engineers to know the nature of thermal energy, temperature and how materials store thermal energy as well as to predict the performance of any given material over its lifetime in a specific application. Also to identify the thermal properties of material so as to assess the performance of certain material and develop efficient heat transfer materials for engines and spacecrafts. This project has been taken on board, due to a lack of information and research available on thermal conductivity measurements. Heat is transferred by three procedures which include Conduction, Convection and Radiation. It engages transfer of thermal energy from one place to another. Thermal conductivity is a significant parameter for the analysis of heat transfer through conduction. Conduction takes place due to the particle collision which results in the transfer of thermal energy. Thermal conductivity (k) is an essential property of a material and defined as amount of heat transferred in a unit thickness of materials in a direction because of change in temperature in constant boundary state in a direction perpendicular to the area of transfer. It is measured in watts per Kelvin per meter (WK-1m-1) and determines the rate of energy loss through a material. The project is titled as study of methods for measurement of thermal conductivity. The project will present the literature review about the methods as well as conducting an experiment to measure the thermal conductivity of different materials. In addition, a thorough analysis of the experimental data is to be obtained while performing the experiment. The aims and objectives of this report pursue as: Understanding of theoretical and experimental methods to measure thermal conductivity of solids, liquids and gases. Construction of experimental rig. A thorough analysis of the experimental data. DELIVERABLES 3.1 GENERIC DELIVERABLES Based on the module guide, the following are the generic deliverables for the academic year 2010-2011; Semester Title Start Date Submission Date Semester 1 Preliminary start Monday 27th September Submit Project Planning Report + Log Book Friday 26th November Semester 2 Dissertation start Monday 31st January Project seminars and poster Week commencing 11th April Submission of final report Thursday 28th April Table 2 Delivery dates set by Kingston University for entire project 3.2 PROJECT DELIVERABLES The objectives of the project have been identified and analysed to produce the following deliverables that will have been produced at the end of the project Construction of an experimental rig to measure thermal conductivity of selected material Analysis of the experimental Data Comparison of the results ANALYSIS OF TASKS The tasks that need to be executed in order to achieve the aims of the project, produce the deliverables on schedule and bring the project to a successful end are as follows: Literature review of conductivity methods Journals Books E-resources Research Conductivity methods of solids Conductivity methods of Liquids Conductivity methods of gas Construction of the experimental Rig Results Comparison A literature review will give an insight into various methods of conductivity. Journals, books and other forms of resources will be used to get an understanding of current concepts of methods and recent modifications (Advantages, disadvantages and limitation). This will form the base of the construction of the experimental rig. Once the technique is selected to perform, various materials will be used to determine their conductivity and hence, the data obtained will be analysed. GANTT CHART A timeline/Gantt chart should be produced, showing the sequence and duration of the tasks over the project lifetime. A set of key milestones by which the project progress can be monitored may also be produced. Figure 1 Illustrate an Inital Gantt Chart PROGRESSION TO DATE As of 26/11/10 the project is at the beginning of the research phase. The literature review has been completed by looking into journals and online resources. The information gathered has been on advantages, disadvantages, limitation, process and setup of the conductivity measurement techniques. I have gathered and read a number of journals relating to conductivity measurements. 6.1 METHODS TO MEASURE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS In solids, particles are packed close together by chemical bonds. As heat is transferred, the particles gains energy which results in increase in kinetic energy and particles vibrate against theneighbouring particles causing transfer of energy between the particles. Increase in temperature causes increase in thermal conductivity because of the mobility of boundless electrons. Heat energy is transferred in solids by means of lattice waves, electrical carriers and electromagnetic waves. In metals, the heat is largely transferred by electrical carriers whilst in insulators lattice waves carry large amount of heat. The change in magnitude and temperature of thermal conductivity of solids is due to the dislocations, imperfections of lattice forces and interface between lattice waves and carriers. However the change of thermal conductivity varies depending upon materials. A summary of different techniques to measure thermal conductivities is shown on next page. C-THERM TCi SYSTEM TRANSIENT PLANE SOURCE METHOD HOT-WIRE METHOD NEEDLE PROB METHOD Figure 2 Summary of Techniques to measure thermal conductivity of solids Transient Techniques Methods to measure thermal conductivity of solids Steady State Techniques Comparative Method Pipe Test Method Cut Bar Method Guarded Hot Plate Method 6.1.1 HOT-WIRE METHOD It exists in three forms which include single, crossed resistive wires and two parallel wires distant apart. It is utilized to measure thermal conductivity of refractories and takes several assumptions into account which pursue as: Isotropic Material with Uniform preliminary Temperature Figure 3 Setup of Hot-Wire method (2010, Home, [Internet], Available at: http://www.tpl.fpv.ukf.sk/engl_vers/hot_wire.htm , accessed on 8 October 2010)Hot wire an ideal, infinite thin, and long line heat supply Thermal Conductivitycan be determined by temperature vs. time response (K) due to production of heat flux (q) in the wire surrounded in the sample. Equation 2 Measurement of thermal Conductivity using Hot-Wire Method Advantages Disadvantages Precise Extensive Procedure of measuring at specified temperature Simplistic in Configuration Not utilized to measure thermal conductivity of anisotropic material Short Duration in Measurement Expertise required Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hot-wire Method 6.1.2 NEEDLE PROB METHOD It is utilized to measure thermal conductivity of materials as well as thermal diffusivity and specific heat. It has the ability for in-situ measurements and effective contact of the sample with a single tiny gap. When measuring the thermal conductivities of solids, samples are outfitted with hole machined in order to enclose probe diameter whilst measuring liquids, probes are pushed into the samples that are to be tested. This method consists of hollow tube functioning as heat supply element and temperature sensor estrange by means of medium with high thermal conductivity and electrical insulation to ensure minor difference of radial temperature within the probe. 6.1.3 TRADITIONAL TRANSIENT PLANE SOURCE METHOD (TPS) Figure 4 Apparatus of TPS (2010, Home, [Internet] Available at: http://www.ask.com/wiki/Thermal_conductivity_measurement , 10 October 2010)It is also acknowledged as Hot Disk Method and has several advantages such as accurate, comprehensiveness and ease of application. It consists of a flat sensor along with continuous double spiral of electrically conducting nickel metal etched out of thin foil and clad between two layer of kapton which provides mechanically stability and electrically insulation to the sensor. The rise in temperature is caused when current passes through nickel spiral and heat formed is dispersed by sample. Thermal conductivity is measured by recording temperature vs. time response in the sensor. In addition, modified traditional transient plane source method imparts maximum flexibility for scrutinizing thermal conductivity of liquids and powder and sustain heating element on a support. It utilizes single surface interfacial heat reflectance sensor that provides constant heat to the sample and functions temporarily. 6.1.4 TRANSIENT LINE SOURCE METHOD (C-THERM TCi SYSTEM) It is the infinite line source with constant power per unit length and identical in principle to Hot-wire method. In order to determine temperature at a certain distance the following equation was taken into consideration: Equation 3 Measurement of temperature using C-Therm TCi System where: Q = Power per unit Length E = Exponential Integral t = Time Passed since Heating 6.1.5 PIPE TEST METHOD Figure 5 Apparatus of Pipe Test Method (2010, Home, [Internet], Available at: http://www.evitherm.org/default.asp?lan=1ID=894Menu1=894 , 13 October 2010)It is identical in concept to the guarded hot plate method. It consists of a central heater which contains a cylinder placed in such a way that the heater achieves a constant temperature by means of alteration in spacing of windings in the heater in permutation with the utilization of concise split guard heaters at the ends. It can operate horizontally and vertically by situating the apparatus in a stable environment. It employs radial flow to determine thermal conductivity of minerals, plastics etc. 6.1.6 COMPARATIVE TECHNIQUE Figure 6 Apparatus of Comparative Technique (2010, Home, [Internet], Available at: http://www.evitherm.org/default.asp?lan=1ID=893Menu1=893 , 15 October 2010)A test specimen is crammed under load flanked by two reference materials; each is bounded by longitudinal guard cylinder. This results in production of temperature gradient along with the stack as well as longitudinal heat flows as consequences of temperature gradient in the guard cylinder to that in specimen stack. Therefore, the thermal conductivity is measured by recording the difference in temperature across the reference and test specimen. It has several advantages which pursue as: Versatile Simple in implementation Adaptable It is also known as the workhorse of the thermal conductivity field and can be utilized to measure homogenous and heterogeneous composite solids. 6.1.7 GUARDED HOT-PLATE METHOD Figure 7 Apparatus of Guarded Hot Plate Method (2010, Home; [Internet], Available at: http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=2667 , 16 October 2010)The test material is positioned on a flat plate heater with electrically heated inner plate surrounded by guard heater. Its function is to maintain similar temperature at both sides of the gap extricating the main and guard heaters as a result, prevention of lateral heat flow and heat energy flows in the direction of sample. Calculated direct current is functioned to the hot plate and numerous temperatures across cold plates and heater is controlled in order to give off constant temperature at the sample surfaces. Hence, the accuracy of thermal conductivity measurements is dependent on conservation of constant temperature conditions and is measured by Fourier heat flow equation: Equation 4 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity using Guarded Hot plate method where: W = Electrical Power Input dT = Difference in temperature across the specimens d = Sample thickness 6.1.8 CUT-BAR TECHNIQUE Figure 8 Apparatus of Cut-Bar Technique (2010, Home, [Internet] Available at: http://www.anter.com/TN67.htm , 17 October 2010)It is utilized for axial thermal conductivity measurements. An unknown thermal conductivity disk sample is sandwiched between two known thermal conductivity cylinder metal brass by thermal grease and pliable metal in order to reduce interfacial thermal between the cylinders. In addition, a thermocouple situated along the three material pieces produces information on the rate of heat flow by the two known thermal conductivity. Hence, thermal conductivity is calculated using the following equation: Equation 5 Measurement of thermal Conductivity using cut-bar technique There are some other techniques to measure thermal conductivity of solids which include: Steady-State techniques Transient Techniques Four-Probe Method Laser Flash Method Guarded Heat Flow Method Angstrom Method Heat Flow Meter Method Photo thermal Method Transient Hot Strip Method Table 4 Other Techniques to measure thermal conductivity of solids 6.2 METHODS TO MEASURE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS Liquids particles are situated in a cubic lattice, as energy moves from a single lattice plane to the following at a speed at which sound passes through the liquid of interest. Thermal conductivity can be estimated using Bridgemans equation: Equation 6 Bridgemans Equation where: N = Avogadros Constant = (6.023 x 1023) K = (Boltzmanns Constant) = (1.3807 x 10-23 J/K) V= Molar Mass = M/à Ã‚  = Speed of sound through fluid sample A summary of different techniques to measure thermal conductivities of liquids is shown on next page. LASER FLASH METHOD HOT-WIRE METHOD DIFFRENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMTER TRANSIENT TECHNIQUES 3 OMEGA METHOD STEADY STATE TECHNIUQES RADIAL HEAT FLOW APPARATUS CALORIMETER PHOTOPYROELECTRIC DEVICE METHODS TO MEASURE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS Figure 9 Techniques to measure thermal conductivity of liquids 6.2.1 HOT-WIRE METHOD The apparatus consists of hot-wire cells utilizing electrically insulated hot wires dependent on an electrically conducting fluid. Wires of minute diameter are immersed within the fluid and utilized simultaneously as an electrical resistance as well as resistance thermometers, thus to enable calculation of the increase in temperature due to the resistance heating. Thermal conductivity is determined using the same process as mentioned above. Finite dimensions of the fluid can be improved, however modification to the finite dimension of wire can be reduced by utilizing minute hot-wires. 6.2.2 3-OMEGA METHOD Its features include a heating frequency (of 10 KHz), direct measurement of thermal conductivity and temperature range of -190 to 500. It comprises of alternating current and lock in amplifier to estimate thermal conductivity of the dielectric materials directly. Advantages of 3-Omega Method are being precise and fast. Thin metal situated on the specimen, an alternating current with frequency à Ã¢â‚¬ ° exceeds via strip causing heating of the material and measurement of voltage v (t) simultaneously. In addition, assumption of the heat flow along the cross plane axis of the film results in determination of the thermal conductivity using the following equation: Equation 7 Determination of thermal conductivity using 3 Omega Method where: P1 = Power b = Width of the strip =Increase in temperature oscillation of the strip 6.2.3 LASER FLASH METHOD A liquid sample is sandwiched between a minute thin metal disk and a sampler holder. Sample holder minimizes thermal contact with the sample plus suppresses stray light transmitted from the laser to the IR detector. At the time when the laser beam is taken in the front surface of the metal disk, the heat flows downward through liquid sample and temperature rises. Thus, thermal conductivity can be estimated by the disks foil temperature without measuring the thickness of the sample liquid layer and reference material. 6.2.4 DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETER (DSC) It is a linear heating process that has super imposed sinusoidal oscillation which yields in cyclic heating of the sample. Advantages of the method pursue as: Short Analysis time No instrument modification Figure 10 Apparatus of DSC (2010, Home, [Internet], Available at: http://pslc.ws/macrogcss/dsc.html, 1 November 2010) http://pslc.ws/macrogcss/dsc.html Small thermal gradient across the sample Experiment is performed in a non-adiabatic surrounding; numerous unknown specimens with identical length and cross sectional areas are formed. Furthermore, known specimens with their conductivity and a density supplied to the unknown specimen are formed with identical length and cross sectional to the unknown specimen. Each specimen is subjected to an equal amount of rise in heat to estimate the specific heat capacity. Therefore, the thermal conductivity obtained is: Equation 8 Measurement of thermal conductivity using DSC where: D = diameter of the specimen M = Mass of the specimen = Specific heat capacity 6.2.5 CALORIMETER A device designed to overcome the effects of convection that Prevents accurate measurement of liquids conductivities. Measures organic liquids conductivity rapidly and has several advantages which follow as: Short time measurement Accuracy Constant current passes via thermistor which functions as a heating element immersed in the liquid sample. As conductivity varies with liquid, the rate of temperature varies with liquids. Hence, thermal conductivity is inversely proportional to rate of temperature change. 6.2.6 RADIAL HEAT FLOW APPARATUS Figure 11 Apparatus of Radia Heat Flow (2010, Home, [Internet], Available at: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0104-66321999000400009script=sci_arttext, 27 October 2010)A steady-state technique which offers variation of conductivity under pressure as well as absolutes values of conductivity. It is fast and requires a small pressure gradient. Liquid sample is situated between two concentric cylinders (brass and Pyrex glass construction), the axis of the inner cylinder acts as a supply of heat which flows out radially crossways the layer of fluid. Measurements of difference in temperature between inner and an outer surface of the layer of the fluid are taken to obtain thermal conductivity. 6.3 METHODS TO MEASURE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF GAS Figure 12 TCD to measure thermal Conductivity of Gas (2010, Home, [Internet], Available at: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttextpid=S0103-50532004000600009, 2 November 2010) Thermal conductivity detector (TCD) is utilized to measure thermal conductivity of gas by pulse injection. Heat is transmitted from hot to cold element by way of thermal conduction passing through the carrier gas. However, the difference in temperature between hot and cold element is maintained. Due to the thermal flow energy into the gas medium thermal gradient is generated. The power need to heat the hot element is a direct evaluation of the electrically signal output for the thermal conductivity. DISCUSSION As mentioned above, the project is currently at the beginning of the research phase. Investigation into the areas described above is vital as the information gathered will have implications on the selection of the technique for the experiment. The project objectives should be met on schedule as there are not any limitations restricting the project from completion. Whilst performing the experiment in the near future, there may be some timing conflicts as there will be other students using the same machinery in the workshop but as enough time is allocated for the task in hand there should not be any difficulty in completing the objectives. Although there may be some complications when obtaining results, however with the knowledge and experience available via the lab technicians any problem(s) shall be duly addressed. CONCLUSION In conclusion the project aims and deliverables have been identified and the required tasks needed achieve the aims and produce the deliverables have been identified and discussed. An initial Gantt chart has been drawn up to illustrate the sequences and durations of the tasks to be completed. It can be seen that the performance so far is coincident with the planned set of activities for this time period within the Gantt chart. As a result, it is expected that the project is likely to be completed on time.

The Government of Ancient Rome :: essays research papers

Rome is located on the Tiber River in Italy. This environment provided arable land, and therefore had good crops. In addition, a peninsula provided access to the sea on both sides. Rome had a Mediterranean climate, and the Tiber provided sources of water for easy access to the sea and transportation. The Alps and the Apennines provided the water for Rome?s river system, and the ash from nearby volcanoes provided fertile soil, as to further promote the wellness of the arable land. There were natural harbors, providing trade and economy growth. Rome had a tripartite government that maintained elements of monarchy, oligarchy, and republic. Rome?s tripartite government had three branches. The branches were executive, legislative, and judicial. The first branch was the executive branch. The executive branch had magistrates who represented the tradition of monarchy, led the government and the army, acted as judges and high priests, and occupied the ruling position once held by a king. They also managed tax collection and the maintenance of roads. Consuls, or the two leaders elected by citizen?s representatives, held the highest office of state and powers, and conducted games in the Circus Maximus. They also helped the Genoese merchants and sailors with difficulties with local authorities. Praetors heard cases, developed much of the civil and criminal law, and some had jurisdiction over important criminal cases. Censors, or the ?moral guardians? of Rome, assessed wealth of citizens, and supervised public morals and management of public finances. The dictator had military control, and was temporarily all-powerful. The dictator also dictated policies in times of need. The second branch was the legislative branch. The legislative branch had a senate that passed many decrees, represented the tradition of oligarchy, advised consuls, and controlled state finances and passed laws. Patricians were the upper class, ran the government, and acted as leaders. The third branch was the judicial branch. The judicial branch had an assembly that represented the democratic element of the Roman Republic, placed men in classes according to how much military equipment they could provide, and elected tribunes, or the representatives of the common people, or plebeians. There was a council of plebeians, which had little power, could not hold office, and could not serve as priests, because they were common people. The Roman Republic ensured a system of checks and balances. Checks and balances means to keep any one branch of government from gaining more power than the others gain.

Coal :: Research Essays

Coal As the granddaughter of an Irish immigrant coal miner, I thought I knew everything there was to know about coal. I was wrong. After learning about coal rank, and the different types of coal mines, I gained a much deeper appreciation for the work of my grandfather. Being from Tamaqua, I knew what anthracite coal was as soon as I could understand my Pappy’s ramblings. Among the Top 20 Signs You’re from the Coal Region, included â€Å"You think only God has the proper resume to take over after Joe Paterno leaves Penn State† (Top Ten). Another was â€Å"You’ve eaten coal candy† (who hasn’t?) (Top Ten). However, I know now that there are different types of coal mining techniques, such as underground mining, longwall mining and shaft mining. I also learned about the different types of underground mines, like shaft mines, slope mines, and drift mines. Shaft mines are usually the deepest type of coal mine. They use elevators to vertically transport workers and equipment to the level of the coal seam. Slope mines incline from the surface to a coal seam. Drift mines have entrances to coal seams from the hillside horizontally (UMWA). My Pappy, however, was a shaft miner. I can now more easily identify with my Pappy’s old coal mining stories since he worked in a shaft mine, and I know now the general set-up of that type of mine. For instance, there are two shafts, the man shaft, and the air-shaft. Also, I learned about the different layers underground, like sandstone, shale, and limestone, before the coal seam appears. Decisions about what type of mine to construct depend on surrounding terrain and the depth of the coal (UMWA). In recent years, however, coal production has decreased in the Appalachian Region, causing plenty of Gaelic tantrums during the holidays. In 2003, Coal production in the Appalachian region declined, due to lawsuits, underground mine fires, geological problems, and depleted reserves (Annual†¦). With my newfound knowledge of coal, coal mines, and coal production, I intend to have many more intelligent conversations with my Grandfather in the years to come. Coal :: Research Essays Coal As the granddaughter of an Irish immigrant coal miner, I thought I knew everything there was to know about coal. I was wrong. After learning about coal rank, and the different types of coal mines, I gained a much deeper appreciation for the work of my grandfather. Being from Tamaqua, I knew what anthracite coal was as soon as I could understand my Pappy’s ramblings. Among the Top 20 Signs You’re from the Coal Region, included â€Å"You think only God has the proper resume to take over after Joe Paterno leaves Penn State† (Top Ten). Another was â€Å"You’ve eaten coal candy† (who hasn’t?) (Top Ten). However, I know now that there are different types of coal mining techniques, such as underground mining, longwall mining and shaft mining. I also learned about the different types of underground mines, like shaft mines, slope mines, and drift mines. Shaft mines are usually the deepest type of coal mine. They use elevators to vertically transport workers and equipment to the level of the coal seam. Slope mines incline from the surface to a coal seam. Drift mines have entrances to coal seams from the hillside horizontally (UMWA). My Pappy, however, was a shaft miner. I can now more easily identify with my Pappy’s old coal mining stories since he worked in a shaft mine, and I know now the general set-up of that type of mine. For instance, there are two shafts, the man shaft, and the air-shaft. Also, I learned about the different layers underground, like sandstone, shale, and limestone, before the coal seam appears. Decisions about what type of mine to construct depend on surrounding terrain and the depth of the coal (UMWA). In recent years, however, coal production has decreased in the Appalachian Region, causing plenty of Gaelic tantrums during the holidays. In 2003, Coal production in the Appalachian region declined, due to lawsuits, underground mine fires, geological problems, and depleted reserves (Annual†¦). With my newfound knowledge of coal, coal mines, and coal production, I intend to have many more intelligent conversations with my Grandfather in the years to come.

Analysis of Sherwood Anderson’s Hands Essay

Sherwood Anderson’s short story, Hands, revolves around the themes of being grotesque and being lonely. The author illustrated these themes through the story’s main character, Wing Biddlebaum, who was driven out of his original hometown after he was accused of molesting a young boy in the school which he used to teach in when he caressed the boy’s hair and shoulders using his hands. In short, Wing’s seemingly â€Å"uncontrollable† hands symbolized his grotesqueness. Although Wing had pure intentions in everything he did, his own fear that he might repeat the incident at the school forced him to live in isolation, which also shows that he is lonely. His only friend was George, who was depicted as his â€Å"pupil† and who exhibited the same passion in writing as Wing did in teaching. Basically, from the themes that the author presented in the story, it can be deduced that even though Wing had problems controlling his hands, he still was in fact a normal person as shown in his friendship with George. This was best illustrated when Wing was about to touch George the same way that he touched the boy at the school using his hands but was able to refrain from doing so. He also gave George advice in his career as a reporter for a newspaper, which showed that he wanted to help the boy and not harm him or sexually harass him In addition, the author portrayed that throughout the whole story that when Wing caressed the young boy’s hair and shoulders at the school, he never meant to sexually harass him. His actions were only misinterpreted by the parents of the boy as sexual in nature which eventually led to his isolation. Moreover, the author depicted Wing as a person who still desired human connection but feared doing so because of his â€Å"uncontrollable hands. † In other words, Wing’s apparent â€Å"grotesque† nature, which was symbolized by his hands, was not his fault but the fault of the people and the world around him. It was their perception of Wing that made him grotesque and not his own hands. Works Cited Anderson, Sherwood. 2004. Hands. 14 April 2008 .

The Effects of Incarceration

The Effects of Incarceration Dionne Lee Nov. 19, 2012 Social Problems Incarceration can be devastating on everybody’s lives. Not only it affects the person that is actually in jail, but it affects his or her loved ones. First, it puts a strain on the family finances once a family member is incarcerated. Second, it causes problems in relationships, whether it is girlfriend or wife. Third, it causes emotional strain, especially if he or she has a long time to serve.According to Macionis, the incarceration rate in 2008 for the United States was 762 people for every 100,000 in the population and among all the nations of the world, this country has the highest share of its people in prison. Having a loved one incarcerated can be very strenuous on the family’s finances. Learning from personal experience, it can almost put one in bankruptcy. The cost of phone calls is very expensive. It can almost get up into the hundreds of dollars per month. The person that’s incarcer ated never considers the financial stain that it has on the family.The only thing that is considered is being in contact with his or her family, no matter what the cost maybe. The family is also expected to travel great distances in some cases, which can also become a problem. According to Families Left Behind article, the average distance for an incarcerated family member is 100 miles for men and 160 miles for women. With the cost of gas steadily rising, it would be almost impossible to constantly make regular visits. The single parent is also left to pay all the family bills that were once being paid by both parties.Having an incarcerated loved one also causes problems with his or her relationship. Trust issues begin to develop and this puts a strain on both parties involved. If one is married, this could possibly lead to divorce because eventually the stress will be so great that the one involved will no longer want to go through with this particular life and would want to move o n without the stress of having an incarcerated partner. Married men in prison reach the national 50% divorce rate much more quickly than do men in the general population.It is difficult to carry out intimate relationships from prison due to limited contact and communication. Lastly, emotions begin to come into play. If the loved one has been incarcerated for a long period of time, the emotional part of their relationship wears down. The â€Å"prison mask† is a common syndrome that develops; the mask is the emotional flatness men take on when they suppress emotions and withdraw from healthy social interactions. To survive in an often brutal environment, prisoners may develop hyper-masculinity, which glorifies force and domination in relations with others.Finally, many prisoners are plagued by feelings of low self-worth and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (Haney, 2001). All of these psychological changes, which may be necessary for survival in the prison environment, can impede intimate relationships. In conclusion, incarceration can be tough on anyone who’s involved. It puts a strain on finances, relationships, and emotions. It’s a very tough road to go through and some make it through it and others don’t. The one who really takes a hard hit from all this are the children that’s involved.They have to learn to deal with the fact that they have a parent that’s incarcerated. The parent that’s left behind has to deal with all of the emotional ups and downs of the children and the financial burdens of the household. He or she has to play both parenting roles, which causes a lot of emotional wear and tear on their psychological being. Therefore, this causes resentment towards the absent parent and once this happens the family that once was, no longer exists. Reference Page Bibliography (n. d. ). The Effects Of Incarceration on Intimate Relationships. Macionis, J. J. (2010).Social Problems. (October 2003). Fam ilies Left Behind: The Hidden Coat Of Incarceration and Reentry. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. , the incarceration rate in 2008 for the United States was 762 people for every 100,000 in the population and among all the nations of the world, this country has the highest share of its people in prison [ 2 ]. . Married men in prison reach the national 50% divorce rate much more quickly than do men in the general population. It is difficult to carry out intimate relationships from prison due to limited contact and communication. 3 ]. . The â€Å"prison mask† is a common syndrome that develops; the mask is the emotional flatness men take on when they suppress emotions and withdraw from healthy social interactions. To survive in an often brutal environment, prisoners may develop hyper-masculinity, which glorifies force and domination in relations with others. Finally, many prisoners are plagued by feelings of low self-worth and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (Haney, 2001). All of these psychological changes, which may be necessary for survival in the prison environment, can impede intimate relationships.

Liberated and society Essay

Some products portrayed women as the traditional housewife like ‘Shake ‘n’ vac’ does with their commercial. However the house used was fairly modern for the time as it had huge windows, which for the time were very modern and the furniture was better than the average shown in television programmes of the time, signifying a middle class house. However the woman in the advert is not middle class but she is portrayed as working class. The woman is portrayed as enjoying doing the housework and when the person purchases the product they too can enjoy doing the housework. During the period of the advert women were portrayed as being able to have a job but the majority were still in the house unemployed and cooking and cleaning. However throughout the large part of the twentieth century women were campaigning to be liberated and society did not agree with this at all. The liberation began in the early part of the twentieth century after the First World War between Christmas 1914 and 1918. The big push came in the nineteen sixties and women started to appear more in advertisements like in the Fairy Liquid advert in the mid-sixties. Women being liberated started a huge difference in the amount of advertising containing women. The graph below shows what happened to women in advertising and as you can see the amount of adverts which contain women steadily goes up.  From about the nineteen eighties onwards women were used as sex objects more unlike previously. For example Lucky Strike used a woman as an upperclass role model, something the men wanted to have and something the women wanted to be. However companies like Milk Tray use women in a more sensual and seductive way. For example when the lady walks out of the shower in a dressing gown whilst drying her hair and finds the box of Milk Tray on her dressing table. As opposed to the Oxo advert in the early nineteen eighties which showed the traditional Mother serving her husband and then later on feeding a whole family. Oxo’s adverts on television have always been long term campaigns, which started off with ‘Katie’ which lasted for eighteen years and then moved onto a family after surveys had been carried out. In the nineties women were used as sex objects to appeal to the male population for the majority of the time unless the product was obviously aimed at women. For example Wonder Bra used a woman to advertise their product however the advertisement may have also captured a small male audience because of the visual aspect of the advert. This is the same for the Round the clock panty hoses, which was unveiled in the late eighties. Many adverts made in the nineteen nineties recognised a niche in marketing when creating their adverts for their campaign, which was aimed at the male population. For example if an advertising campaign were to be aiming at men then they may appeal to their sexual weakness. This is what H(agen-Dazs has done, they have used a good-looking male to appeal to the women and they have used a good-looking female who happens not to be wearing much. The advert also has the hidden meaning of the product being a seductive ice cream. At present day there are many adverts on television usually aged between twenty to on average about thirty-five and also some adverts. Like the direct line car insurance advert for example, which used an over 40, middle class woman because it was the same age range as the advert was targeting. The majority of the adverts which use women without much on are normally found in magazines, which helps the producers to target their audience more effectively, also they have a fair idea of which age range may see them if in magazines instead of on the television. However this is not always the case because some companies may use channels on Sky or Digital which people have to pay for to watch, which again allows the advertisers much more accuracy in who they are targeting. Throughout the last century women in advertising has changed dramatically as well as the way in which advertising occurs through our daily routines. This is a change, which most probably will not stop. Women started off in the beginning of the century as being icons in which men aspired to have and who women aspired to be. Women then changed along with societies opinions and as wars were fought not just abroad but equality for women as well. This liberation led to women appearing more frequently in advertising and appearing more in the work place than they may have done twenty years before. I feel that women in advertising is a good thing because society is equal and therefore women are just as likely to purchase goods as much as men.